The Case for Coexistence: A Brief History of Conservation in Africa

To be in Africa, is to be awed by natural wonder. For many looking from the outside in, the almost mythic draw of the continent relies hugely on its environmental attractions. From Darwin to David Attenborough, for hundreds of years, Africa’s unique propensity to house biodiversity has baffled naturalists. But, in a changing world, how are we protecting this wonder? 

Africa has spawned some of the largest research and wildlife conservation agencies in the world, ecotourism has become a booming billion dollar industry on the continent, and the economic opportunities of conservation are only just starting to be fully realised. 

Yet even now, the combination of 'fortress' conservation models, poor resource management, and escalating human-wildlife conflicts is placing unprecedented strain on already vulnerable ecosystems and communities. Poaching, deforestation and environmental decay are tearing apart Africa’s wild wonders. At the heart of these issues lies an old and ill-fated understanding of human beings and their relationship to the natural world. We are connected in deep ways with the living threads of creation which surround us: remove one of those threads and the whole web risks unfolding.

Despite this, there are new conservation approaches starting to break ground throughout the world which rely on an even older history. Long before the term ‘conservation’ was even coined, humans knew how to protect and look after the landscapes they lived on. These ancient models might hold the key to repair these outdated structures, unlock the full potential of environmental management, and repair the ailing relationship between humans and the ancient African land upon which they walk.

A History of Conservation on the Continent

Conservation as we know it arrived on the shores of the African continent late in the 19th-century. The 1900 Convention for the Preservation of Wild Animals, Birds and Fish in Africa – otherwise known as the London Convention – is seen by many as the beginning of wildlife conservation in Africa. In a common theme of the day, the colonial powers of the continent sat down around a map in London, divided up nations and drew hard lines along huge swathes of land under the title of ‘Conservation’. These areas became zones whose primary goal was to manage wildlife populations. But rather than for the preservation of ecosystems, the primary objective for these zones was to secure prime spaces for European sport-hunting – which was taking off throughout the continent with the influx of colonial ambition. 

The impact of these early measures was the formal creation of national parks across the continent. The likes of Virunga National Park of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Albert National Park) in 1925, and the Kruger National Park in South Africa in 1926, were enormous ‘conservation zones’ servicing these needs – a cool 3000 square miles and almost 8000 square miles respectively. Today, these National Parks are seen as iconic areas for the protection and research of Africa’s wildlife. In their creation however, they were simply very large areas of biodiversity and wilderness which were fenced off for the exclusive use of colonial entertainment and research.

One of the key elements about the creation of these parks was that lines were drawn and fences were raised which kept animals in, but simultaneously kept local communities out. This meant that for the first time, there was an enforced separation between those who lived on the land, and the land itself.  There was an underlying theme which persisted during this period, which itself came from European Enlightenment ideas: in order to keep nature pristine you need to remove the dirty elements from it – humans – and in this case, specifically autochthons. And this is the principle of the picturesque.

The picturesque is the idea that wilderness can only be truly appreciated, and indeed protected, with the complete subtraction of human interference and activity. Much of the early European travelogues, exploration writing and representations of nature which were carried through European elites and imposed upon the continent followed these same ideas. The picturesque ideals of early European settlement, coupled with the forced removals of those who lived on this land, plucked the human out from the interconnected web of nature and suggested that at its very core – humans and nature need to be separated. 

This was a crucial first step which was taken in these early years of conquest and domination. The separation of the human from the non-human realms of the world created a precedent for understanding nature which has persisted ever since. It has complicated our ability to protect these spaces and continues to blur our ability to see a natural world in turmoil. 

So, the 20th century rolled on, and with it came a wave of independence which spread across the continent. With the renewed sense of ownership and self-determination which began in the 1960’s, there was also a new focus placed on the protection and conservation of African land and its wildlife. This led to the creation of the African Convention on Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources in 1969. At the time the Convention was hailed as a breakthrough moment in the regained autonomy of Africa over her own natural resources. The sustainable implementation of its ideals, however, is yet to be seen. Mismanagement, infrastructural instability and economic pressure have stunted subsequent pan-African conservation policies, and the African Convention’s ability to truly make an impact on conservatories in the continent remains a looming question mark. 

Old Lands, New Paths

Today, there are almost 300 national parks in Africa with more than 3000 protected wild areas, including marine reserves, wetlands and biospheres. As a continent, Africa holds a quarter of the entire planet’s biodiversity. This land, however, is dwindling. The World Bank estimates that 65% of land in Africa is now degraded with nearly 3 million hectares of forest being lost every single year. This, including the fact that almost 200 species of flora and fauna have gone extinct in the last 75 years, paints a rather unfortunate picture. Some of the biggest reasons for this – such as human-wildlife conflict, poaching, political unrest and ecosystem destruction – continue to remain unaddressed on a continental scale. 

While the colonial enterprises which formed the foundations of these parks are long gone, much of the framework for modern conservation still relies on these same outdated structures. We are also still seeing the impact of that original disassociation today – it has simply put on a new mask. Much of the design for contemporary conservation involves international philanthropic institutions or wealthy individuals cordoning off an area of wildlife on the continent. The fences go up, the animals stay in and local people are forced to stay out – sound familiar? This is the popular model of ‘fortress’ conservation which has spread far and wide across the continent. 

This is a simplified version for sure, and ‘fortress’ conservation has been a very popular model for good reason. Being independent of local government and rule, it can move quickly, attract large amounts of private capital and conduct localised, independent research. Private academic institutions and individual conservationists have been absolutely invaluable in the safeguarding of keystone species throughout the continent. And these institutions will almost always act through independent, ‘fortress’ models of operation.  

The economic opportunity within conservation is also always growing, attracting greater private sector involvement. Ecotourism has become a $40 billion dollar per year industry in Africa. And yet, much of this wealth remains locked up in the hands of wealthy individuals or companies. The strength of fortress models has to be acknowledged. The key for change however, lies in being able to take the economic agility of fortress models and implement it into community-first models.

More and more research has shown that in order to create sustainable, effective conservation programmes there needs to be a holistic approach created which is able to take account for all stakeholders – including local communities. While historically founded, modern conservation continues to have a severe lack of community consultation or collaboration. Engagement with these communities has often been one-sided and inefficient and therefore the pressure put on the ecosystems and environments within these wilderness areas becomes much greater. A holistic approach to conservation in Africa is one which is able to uplift communities, protect wildlife, stimulate economic growth and ultimately repair the bonds between humans and the land which have been broken. 

Holistic coexistence has also proven, since before they started collecting data, to be the best model for the protection of lands and animals. A recent study found that Indigenous groups living intimately with the natural world currently protect upwards of 80% of the World's biodiversity. Indigenous, local communities have the ability to apply responsible population management, intimate knowledge of the landscape and animals, and deep, culturally-ingrained reciprocity relationships with the land. They have perfected these models over thousands of years and have old ways of living which have maintained the balance between humans and nature for hundreds of generations. However, the threat to – and disappearance of –  indigenous peoples throughout the world has put more pressure on such a collaborative model of conservation.

Importantly though, the message is starting to catch on. Renewed impetus on these collaborative models and holistic approaches means that parks, conservationists and even governments are starting to renew their ways of operating. A WWF report released this year echoes these sentiments. As one of the world’s largest independent conservation organizations, they are changing their approach and have created a new ‘One Health’ model for conservation. This relies on the interdependent nature of conservation and the need to bring in governments, communities, researchers, donors and animals all into the same conversation. The community conservancy model is starting to prove itself, and though still in early stages, this is nothing but positive for the continent and its wildlife.

Final Word  

The foundations for much of what we see in modern day conservation come from a fractured and disruptive history. These foundations have perpetuated the separation between humans and the land on which they live. So, while the economic opportunities of conservation are growing, the conflict that is felt between people and the wilds that surround them on the continent is growing too. We now know for sure that the best way to repair the broken biodiversity of our world, is to first and foremost repair the relationship between humans and the living Earth. As Edwin Tambara, a Director of the African Wildlife Foundation quite openly says, “at its heart, conservation is profoundly simple: co-existence.”

There are interconnected threads of life which intimately tie the fate of humans to that of the natural world. Remembering this bond can be the first step to renewal. Once we can see where we have come from, we can learn to respect, replenish and reconnect to our living, breathing, world – once again.